[转贴][分享]how to write a technic

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A technical paper will usually have four sections. The purpose of each of these sections is as follows:   
Section I: Introduction.
   The Introduction should do the following:  
   1.  Open up the subject. (The subject will be electromagnetic  fields in cylindrical dielectric geometrics, adaptive arrays in   packet radio, or whatever.)
   2.  Survey past work relevant to this paper.
   3.  Describe the problem addressed in this paper, and show how this     work relates to, or augments, previous work.
   4.  Describe the assumptions made in general terms and state what     results have been obtained. (This gives the reader an initial     overview of what problem is addressed in the paper and what has     packet radio, or whatever.)     been achieved.)   5.  Overview the contents of the paper. ("Section II contains our     formulation of the problem. Section III contains the experimental     data, ...")      

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Section II: Formulation of the Problem. This section should do three

things:

1.  Define the problem to be considered in detail. Typically this

    section might begin with something like: "Consider a packet radio

    system consisting of a single central repeater surrounded by user

    terminals. Each user transmits packets to the central repeater

    using a slotted ALOHA protocol. The transmissions from all users

    are assumed to be on the same frequency." the discussion should

    proceed in this way until the problem is completely defined.

2.  Define all terminology and notation used. Usually the terminology

    and notation are defined along with the problem itself.

3.  Develop the equations on which your results will be based and/or

    describe any experimental systems.

  

    section might begin with something like: "Consider a packet radio

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Section III: Results. This section presents the detailed results you

have obtained. If the paper is theoretical, you will probably show

curves obtained from your equations. If the paper is experimental, you

will be presenting curves showing the measurement results. In order to

choose the proper curves to present, you must first be clear what

point

you are trying to convey to the reader. The curves can then be chosen

to illustrate this point. Whether your paper is theoretical or

experimental, you must provide a careful interpretation of what your

results mean and why they behave as they do.

  

Section IV: Conclusion. This section should summarize what has been

accomplished in the paper. Many readers will read only the

Introduction

and Conclusion of your paper. The Conclusion should be written so they

can be understood by someone who has not read the main work of the

accomplished in the paper. Many readers will read only the

Introduction

paper.

  

This is the most common format for an engineering paper. Of course,

the

names of the sections may differ slightly from those above, but the

purpose of each section will usually be as described. Some papers

include additional sections or differ from the above outline in one

way

or another. However, the outline just presented is a good starting

point for writing a technical paper.

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To write your paper, you should proceed as follows:

Step 1: Start by writing a complete first draft of your paper, except

for the Introduction and Conclusion. (It is easiest to leave the

Introduction and Conclusion until after the main body of the paper is

written.) In writing your paper, keep the following in mind:

1. You must always present the big picture first and then work towards

the details. The other way around will not work. This is especially

true in the beginning of Section II, where you are explaining the

problem you are studying.

2. If you get stuck and cannot figure out how to explain something, a

useful trick is to imagine that you are telling a very good friend

what

you are working on: just put down the words as you would say them to

your friend.

  In writing your first draft, do not worry if the wording is not

the details. The other way around will not work. This is especially

perfect. Polishing the document comes later. When you are finished

with

your first draft, put it away and do not look at it for a couple of

days before you begin Step 2.

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Step 2: Make sure the ideas in the paper are in the right order. If

not, move blocks of the paper around with your text editor until they

are. Ask yourself: "Can the reader understand every passage strictly

from the material up to that point?" if not, add material or move

ideas

around. Make sure there not gaps in your logical arguments, and make

sure you are not implicitly assuming that the reader understands

something needed to follow your arguments, even though you have not

stated it. The reader probably understands less than you think.

  

Step 3: Work on the transitions between ideas. Make sure that at each

stage the reader has a roadmap of where he or she is going. The reader

must be able to see the big picture. At the beginning of each section,

make clear to the reader in advance what the purpose of that section

Step 3: Work on the transitions between ideas. Make sure that at each

will be and how that section relates to the preceding material. At the

end of each section, you may also want to remind the reader that you

have now completed what you set out to do in that section. Then, point

out what the purpose of the next section will be, and so forth. These

connection statements are called transitions the reader must always be

able to see where you are going and why and how far you have

progressed.

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Step 4: Check each paragraph for unity. Each paragraph should have one

main point. Usually the central point of each paragraph is stated in a

topical sentence at the beginning of the paragraph, but not always.

You

should not mix different ideas together in the same paragraph. If you

are having trouble getting a certain section of your paper to sound

right, go through that section one paragraph at a time and ask

yourself

what the main point of each paragraph is. Fogy writing is often due to

mixed-up paragraphs.

  

Step 5: Work on the sentences to reduce the fog index. The Fog Index F

is defined as F = 0.4 (L + P), where L is the average number of words

per sentence and P is the average number of polysyllables per 100

words

of text. (A polysyllable is a word with three or more syllables.) To

evaluate the Fog Index for your paper, count the number of words per

evaluate the Fog Index for your paper, count the number of words per

sentence and the number of polysyllables per 100 words for a

representative portion of your paper five or six hundred words long.

Ideally, you should strive for fog index less than 10. In technical

writing, it is sometimes difficult to get the Fog Index below 10, but

a

Fog Index above 15 is a warning that your material will be very hard

for a reader to follow. Consider the following examples taken from

typical office memos. Note that both memos say the same thing. To

reduce the fog index, you must do two things: (1) reduce the length of

your sentences (by breaking long sentences into shorter ones), and (2)

get rid of as many complicated words as possible (by using simpler

words instead).

Step 6: Get rid of as many passive verbs as possible. Always check

your

paper for passive verbs. ("The data were measured and the results were

correlated.") Change as many verbs as possible into the active form.

("We measured the data and correlated the results.") Using too many

passive verbs makes your writing boring. Editor's comment: At their

worst, passive verbs can make writing incomprehensible. The reader

always needs to know who is doing what to whom, and a passive verb

often obscures both the agent and the recipient of an action. In Ted's

example, the passive form obscures who it was that measured the data

and correlated the results.

  

Step 7: Use verbs more than nouns. Do not bury the main action of your

sentences in nouns or adjectives. Instead, let the verbs carry the

and correlated the results.

action. Consider these examples: Example: " The annual report produced

a disappointed reaction from the sponsor." Revision: " The annual

report disappointed the sponsor." Example: " It is our expectation

that

we will see radiation pattern improvement when the antenna is

elevated." Revision: " We expect to improve the radiation pattern by

elevating the antenna." Your writing will sound better if you move the

action into the verbs.

［此帖子已被 qxfy 在 2003-7-12 0:19:03 编辑过］

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Step 8: Get rid of as many abstract words as possible. Your paper will

practically always sound better if you use specific words instead of

abstract words. For example, instead of " We determined the conditions

for performance improvement." say " We measured the noise variance

necessary to increase the bit error probability by 5 percent." The

problem is that abstract words often convey a different meaning to the

reader than the one you intended.

  

Step 9: Check for consistent use of verb tense. Many technical

professionals change verb tense frequently between the future and

present tense for no reason. You should check that your verb tense is

consistent throughout the paper. Usually it is simplest just to stick

to the present tense: " We present our results in Section III,"

instead

  

of " We shall present our results in Section III." (Note that the

correct future tense for the first person (I or we) is "shall", not

"will.")

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Step 10: Do not use "this" as a pronoun. Avoid sentences such as "

This

is ..." and " This gives ..." When "this" is used as a pronoun, its

antecedent is often missing or poorly defined, and the resulting

writing usually looks amateurish. A typical example in engineering

writing is, " By increasing the impedance, the radiation level is

increased and the electric field becomes stronger. This means that ...

"

What specifically does "this" refer to? (Moreover, who did the

"increasing"?) The solution to this problem is to change "this" to an

adjective by inserting a suitable noun. For example, use "This result

is ...," "This difficulty is due to ...," and so forth.

  

Step 11: Check your entire document for subtle grammatical mistakes.

We

are not talking here about elementary grammar problems. Presumably you

What specifically does "this" refer to? (Moreover, who did the

do not write egregious sentences such as " He don't got no potatoes."

Rather, the idea is to watch out for more subtle problems, which are

very common in engineering writing.

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Step 12: Polish and polish. Check that the sentence rhythm and timing

are pleasing, and that the ideas flow clearly and simply. If some

section does not quite sound right, work on it some more. Eventually

you will get the right wording. You are looking for subtle changes you

will get the right wording. You are looking for subtle changes that

will improve the way the paper "flows." The main tools you should use

for this step are: (1) reducing the Fog Index by shortening sentences

and eliminating big words, as discussed in Step 5, and (2) checking

each paragraph to make sure it has one main point, as described in

Step

4. You will get better at this step over time, as you develop a "feel"

for clear writing.

  

Step 13: Write the Conclusion. The Conclusion section should simply

4. You will get better at this step over time, as you develop a "feel"

summarize for the reader what has been presented in the paper.

  

Step 14: Write the Introduction. The Introduction is frequently the

hardest part of the paper to write. It must be smoothly written. The

Introduction should address each of the items mentioned in the outline

on Page 1. Moreover, the points discussed in Steps 1-13 should all be

used to polish your Introduction until it is as smooth as possible.

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Notes



  

1.  The Fog Index was first suggested by Mr. Robert Gunning, an early

advocate of clear writing. Accordingly to him, the factor 0.4 in the

definition makes the Fog Index correspond approximately to the number

of years of education a reader must have to read a document easily.

2.  It is hard to make a discussion of grammar interesting, but at

least we can make it brief. In C&D's next Technical Communication

Column: " All you will ever need to know about grammatical mistakes

and how to fix them." One page maximum.